The purpose of this primer is to acquaint the reader with the major religious systems of the world by concisely exposing the doctrines of various faiths. Understanding the parallels between various religions might be the only way for one to learn what is unique about any one faith.  It is hoped that this writing will help promote religious acceptance, respect and understanding between faiths.

All of the ideas and concepts expressed here are debatable. The sections for individual faith traditions express what I have come to understand as the common or core beliefs of each faith’s practitioners. While every attempt has been made to ensure the accuracy of the information presented here, I am fallible, and acknowledge that mistakes may possibly exist.  If you have any questions, comments or observations regarding the content of this site, please feel free to contact me.

Introduction

GrowThyself.org recognizes the right of each individual human being to define religious terms as they see fit, but for the purposes of this primer I will define the following.

“Religion,” as GrowThyself.org defines it, is a culturally derived method by which a sentient entity can bring out some profound beneficial change. We prefer this definition to all others because it encompasses all world religions as well as most other less prominent faith systems. One interpretation of this definition is that all religions have a way of expressing the following

1. humankind at large has some flaw

2. the flaw makes all who possess it unsatisfied

3. the flaw is the only cause of dissatisfaction

4. a specific faith system is a way to relieve the flaw

(Please note that while many definitions of religion will cover major world religions, this particular definition also respectfully applies to non-spiritual faith systems such as atheism.)

Almighty God

the name for a single God who created the universe from nothing, and who is omniscient, omnipotent, and by definition benevolent. Respectfully this name is used as the English translation to describe any such being.

BCE / CE

terminology now standard in world media corresponding to the calendar system. 1 CE, meaning year 1 of the Comm on Era, refers to the year of the birth of Jesus of Nazareth. 1 BCE, meaning 1 year before the Common Era, refers to the year immediately before the birth of Jesus of Nazareth

canon

ideas, almost always in text, which exist in a permanent form and which define a religion

divinity

a sentient spiritual entity

enlightenment

a profound ability to make correct assessments and right decisions

faith

Belief in the absence of proof, supported by evidence which is not universally recognized

spirit

the opposite of material; anything which exists but cannot be measured with methods used in physical science (physics)

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Agnosticism,
Atheism, and
Non-Religion

Phi, the Golden Mean

Introduction

Agnosticism is the faith system associated with material science (physics) and strict mathematical logic. It is a non-exclusive faith system in that it can be paired with any other number of religious beliefs at the user’s discretion.

Agnosticism holds that while spiritual things may exist, there is no conclusive evidence to be found in the material world for believing so. This is strictly distinct from another faith system, atheism, which holds that there is conclusive evidence to be found in the material world for believing that an intelligent spiritual force does not exist. There are some atheists who believe that while nothing intelligent exists in the spiritual realm, there is a spiritual realm nonetheless; these people are pantheists. A few people think nothing of spirituality at all; this group might be called non-religious.

Agnosticism

Belief in spirits almost always includes a belief that the spiritual realm and the physical realm will, on occasion, interact with each other. Agnosticism is a faith system which actively seeks this interaction. A person who looks for evidence of the interaction is an agnostic; if the evidence is convincing, then presumably the agnostic would change belief system to whichever religion exposed the interaction between realms. If the evidence is not convincing, then the agnostic would remain agnostic.

Note that an agnostic is not an atheist, but that an agnostic might convert to atheism in the same way that conversion to any other religion is possible: the agnostic would need to find convincing evidence supporting the adoption of that faith system.

Atheism

There are no universally known scientific tests for disproving the existence of spiritual things; therefore, atheism is a religion based on faith.

There are atheists who have found sufficient evidence of spiritual things despite knowing that there are no deity figures within the spiritual realm. These pantheists are not categorized, but some religions which have branches teaching of an all-pervading non-sentient force include Buddhism, Hinduism, various primal faith systems, and branches of Neopaganism such as Druidism, Shamanism, and Wicca.

Many people who are professed atheists are upset due to perceived injustices perpetuated by religious organizations. A common belief of atheists is that all known religions must be invalid by virtue of their causing mankind more harm than good. There are statistical tests for supporting this claim; however, such tests will never be conclusive and will always have a certain obvious degree of subjectivity in their interpretation.

Some atheists chose their belief out of simple personal preference, preferring not to elaborate on causality. This habit can be found in all religions, and is not unique to atheists.
"It appears to me (whether rightly or wrongly) that direct arguments against Christianity and theism produce hardly any effect on the public; and freedom of thought is best promoted by the gradual illumination of men's minds which follows from the advance of science." [Darwin]

"If we believe absurdities, we shall commit atrocities." [Voltaire]

"I cannot imagine a God who rewards and punishes the objects of his creation, whose purposes are modeled after our own -- a God, in short, who is but a reflection of human frailty. Neither can I believe that the individual survives the death of his body, although feeble souls harbor such thoughts through fear or ridiculous egotism." [Einstein]

"Faith means not wanting to know what is true." [Nietzsche]

"I cannot believe in the immortality of the soul.... No, all this talk of an existence for us, as individuals, beyond the grave is wrong. It is born of our tenacity of life – our desire to go on living … our dread of coming to an end." [Edison]

"The Bible is not my book nor Christianity my profession. I could never give assent to the long, complicated statements of Christian dogma." [Lincoln]

"Religion is a byproduct of fear. For much of human history, it may have been a necessary evil, but why was it more evil than necessary? Isn't killing people in the name of God a pretty good definition of insanity?" [Arthur C. Clarke]

"Religions are all alike – founded upon fables and mythologies." [Thomas Jefferson]

"Say what you will about the sweet miracle of unquestioning faith, I consider a capacity for it terrifying and absolutely vile." [Kurt Vonnegut]

"Religion is based . . . mainly on fear . . . fear of the mysterious, fear of defeat, fear of death. Fear is the parent of cruelty, and therefore it is no wonder if cruelty and religion have gone hand in hand. . . . My own view on religion is that of Lucretius. I regard it as a disease born of fear and as a source of untold misery to the human race." [Bertrand Russell]

Non-religion

Some people have a total lack of faith system, neither believing nor disbelieving in a spiritual realm but they are few and far between. The fact that these people are so rare is a matter of intense curiosity. There is strong evidence supporting the notion that there is something inherent in the human design which makes practically all people question whether or not a spiritual realm exists, if they doubt its existence at all. 

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Bahá'í Faith

Nine-pointed Star

I bear witness, O my God, that Thou hast created me to know Thee and to worship Thee. I testify, at this moment, to my powerlessness and to Thy might, to my poverty and to Thy wealth. There is none other God but Thee, the Help in Peril, the Self-Subsisting.

- Bahá'u'lláh, Prayers and Meditations

 

Introduction

In 1844 CE a gentleman in Shiraz, Persia revealed that he was the Báb (gate) through whom a savior, “He whom God shall make manifest,” would become known to the world. In 1845 Bahá'u'lláh accepted the message of the Báb, fulfilled the prophesy in capacity as that savior, and founded the Bahá'í Faith as its prophet.

Bahá'u'lláh is the last in a series of great beings previously associated exclusively with particular religions, including Hinduism, Judaism, Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam, and many others.

Beliefs

Bahá'u'lláh’s Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Most Holy Book), completed 1873, is the central book of the Bahá'í Faith. It is the basis for asserting the unity of Almighty God through the unity of all religious practices; in time, this connectedness of humankind through the Bahá'í Faith will bring peace, plenty, and fulfillment of all kinds to everyone on earth.

Customs

Bahá'ís must take to heart one of three obligatory prayers each day; the shortest one is quoted above. They observe the Bahá'í month of `Alá' from March 2 through March 20. Specific injunctions in their teachings meld their religious beliefs with the formality of civil law in matters of property ownership, marriage, and other areas. Bahá'ís shun isolated living and enjoy participation in their social community, which if possible should include persons outside their religious community.

There is an expectation that Bahá'ís will seek righteousness and find the help of good counsel and good community to these ends.

Bahá'í Faith is not an Interfaith Religion

Bahá'í Faith is a religion which claims as ancestry most other great religions and prophets, but it is not an interfaith organization which will give full membership to adherents of non-Bahá'í faith. Bahá'ís respect the infallible authority of the Universal House of Justice, with an elected board of nine governs at its base in Haifa, Israel.

Certain personal characteristics which most people consider to be non-religious, such as choice to drink alcohol or the attribute of homosexuality, are specifically prohibited by a legacy of Bahá'í tradition in an effort to promote true righteousness over immediate or temporary worldly unity.

Bahá'í Faith is Compatible with Secular Facts

Bahá'í Faith promotes secular studies and promises doctrinal conformation with the discoveries of worldly authorities. To this end Bahá'í diplomats have a history of involvement with the United Nations (particularly the Economic and Social Council and the Children’s Fund, or UNICEF), the World Health Organization, various international environmental protection agencies, and women’s civil rights protectorates.

Bahá'í Faith encourages studies in physical sciences as well and took an early stand of support for new theories of all kinds prominent enough to be debated openly. While Bahá'í leaders often are silent about their personal views, the overall trend of the church is that fresh ideas are fairly assessed and, if appropriate, quickly assimilated into Bahá'í ideology. 

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Buddhism

Dharma Chakra

I take refuge in the Buddha.
I take refuge in the doctrine.
I take refuge in the monastic order.

- Traditional and Liturgical

Introduction

Buddhism is probably the most simple religion describable, although it often is practiced with a modicum of cultural flair. Buddhism’s chief tenets are called the Four Noble Truths, stated here:

1. suffering exists

2. suffering has a cause, namely, desire

3. desire is the only cause of suffering

4. there is a way to end desire

That is the core of Buddhism; and one need only accept these statements to be a Buddhist. However, Buddhist practice also has specific traditions about applying these statements to real life. An elaboration on the fourth Noble Truth is the below Eightfold Path, which is a series of steps for Buddhist adherents to follow in order. Buddhists should attain these:

1. right views

2. right intention

3. right speech

4. right conduct

5. right livelihood

6. right strivings

7. right mindset

8. right concentration

The different ways in which the fourth Noble Truth is sought can define different religions. If one uses the Eightfold Path to attempt to achieve the fourth Noble Truth, then one uses Buddhist tradition.

History

The term “Buddha” comes from a Sanskrit word meaning “enlightened,” “knowing,” or “awake.” In Buddhism it is used as a title for anyone who has achieved enlightenment.
The historical person called Buddha was Siddhartha Gautama, a prince born around 560 BCE in the northern part of the Indian subcontinent. His parents’ wealth shielded him from all grief until his manhood, at which point he decided to explore places away from his luxurious upbringing.

For the first time in his life, he saw and learned of old age, disease, and death. He become horrified with the realization of the human condition, but then he saw an ascetic (monk) who was satisfied. He left his royal lifestyle and pursued the end to suffering; when he achieved this end, he taught the path he learned as the Buddha.

Spirituality

Buddhism as a faith tradition does not necessarily incorporate teachings about spirituality; however, various cultures often apply their own understandings about spirituality to Buddhism.

Some traditions teach that the aim of Buddhism is the actualization of nirvana, which is a form of enlightenment which is distinctly spiritual as well as earthly. Nirvana is neither nihilistic nor inclusive of all knowledge; it is a state associated with righteousness through moderation. Those who have achieved nirvana are free from samsara, or the cycle of death and rebirth.

Authority

Buddhism has no central authority but practitioners often adopt their culture’s mores to interpret the faith.

The Dalai Lama, a Tibetan Buddhist, is an internationally renowned figurehead of the faith but not specifically a religious leader. He is only, in his own words, “a simple monk.” 

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Christianity

Latin Cross

I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through Me.

- Jesus of Nazareth, Bible, Book of John 14:6

Introduction

Christianity is a system of faith which promises infinite divine benefit to its adherents and possibly infinite divine punishment to its detractors. Its adherents are commonly understood to be those people who adopt a belief system defined by Almighty God and originally given to select members of mankind for the purposes of human dissemination and proselytization.

Founding

Jesus of Nazareth was born into a family of low economic class in approximately 1 CE, (his birth defined the modern dating system), in what is currently Palestine. The manner of His birth was unusual and fulfilled interpretations of Jewish prophecy in what Christians call the Old Testament. Before he reached adolescence he displayed unnatural wisdom beyond human education.

When Jesus was thirty years old He became an itinerant preacher and miracle worker. At this time He made statements which define the purpose of human existence. Also at this time Jesus of Nazareth revealed that He was, in fact, God incarnate as a man. As part of His purpose on earth Jesus submitted Himself to the human legal system and accepted a resulting governmental death penalty.

Salvation through Human Sacrifice

His death became the last instance of blood sacrifice in the Jewish tradition and is thought to atone for all possible sin, due to the infinite value of the divine human sacrifice. This fulfilled Jewish prophesy, as did His miraculous resurrection three days after His death.

The key concept in Christianity is that there is a protocol by means of which one may use that blood sacrifice to pay for personal failings which have offended God, who requires retribution in His capacity as ultimate judge. God has some just method for deciding a person’s fate as a reincarnated spirit in the afterlife, and this decision is related to an individual’s utilization of the blood sacrifice of Jesus.

Authority

Christianity has a closed canon of doctrine within an authoritative book created by God through men in generations after the advent of Jesus; this book is the New Testament and together with the Old Testament makes up a set of works called the Bible.

Christianity’s largest authoritative body is the Holy See - commonly associated with either the Vatican or the Pope - which presides as head of the organization; fewer than half of all Christians recognize the authority of this body. Probably the most concise statement of Christianity is in the Nicene Creed or its derivatives; the sects of Christianity can generally be categorized by their reaction to this short document.

Missionary Tradition

Most of Christianity for most of history has held that those who die without accepting the doctrines of Christianity are doomed to Hell, a horrible fate in the afterlife. Because of this, many Christians insist that non-Christians be exposed to Biblical teachings. Some Christians consider the human-directed conversion of non-believers to Christianity to be more important than any other endeavor.

This belief is balanced in an informal way with the stronger notion that Almighty God is infinitely just, merciful, and loving; many believers find that they must reconcile that primary doctrine against all other doctrines, which are secondary.

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Confucianism

I Ching Hexagram, Qi

I transmit but do not create. I place my trust in the teachings of antiquity.

- Confucius, Analects VII

Introduction

Confucianism emphasizes harmony within human society, and to that end promotes a form of etiquette by means of which a civilization can achieve astounding and fulfilling spiritual and material greatness. This etiquette is the natural result of education, and by means of Confucianism one may learn of and practice right behavior with immediate benefit. Confucianism bears a strong resemblance to Western Secular Humanism; however, it has a legacy of academic excellence nearly unbroken for over two-thousand years.

Confucianism is a world religion embedded into Chinese folk religion and within Korean and Japanese social values. Since the twentieth century it has attracted converts in Europe and the United States without active solicitation.

Founding and Beliefs

Confucius was a great teacher born in China ca550 BCE. The major teachings of Confucius refer to a concept of li, which is a Chinese word meaning “offering” but which refers to formal ritual. Confucius loved li and used it as a means to inspire participants to profound accomplishments; at the same time, he sought to create the society which could appreciate, rather than simply perform, li. A related concept is that of ren, which is both a feeling of love for others and the attribute of benevolence. Within Confucianism, a person who is ren practices li. This lifestyle benefits society in measurable ways, while granting personal success and spiritual fulfillment to the practitioner.

The core value in Confucianism might be politeness. Whereas many other religions are introspective and private, Confucianism regards each person's active involvement in a community as being the means to fulfillment. Civility is a matter of respecting fundamental relationships, those being

1. child’s obedience to parent’s proper upbringing

2. subject’s good morality to ruler’s benevolence

3. wife’s fidelity to husband’s adoration

4. young’s respect to old’s guidance

5. friend’s constancy to more-experienced friend’s concern

In this hierarchy, the relationships are numbered in order of importance and listed so that the position on the left gives deference to the position on the right. Higher-ranking parties in the scheme are subject to ren criticism toward the goal of modeling the relationship after li.

These mutually beneficial relationships are permanent, even beyond death. In this way the relationships become part of a spiritual system of ancestor veneration, often improperly called “ancestor worship.” Furthermore, the status of any position in this hierarchy is continually maintained by a system of merit. Such severance of interpersonal bonds is never done lightly; ren ideally leads to conflict resolution before problems arise.
Confucianism’s open canon is standardized from these traditional texts:

1. Li Ji (Classic of Rites) - manual of Zhou court ceremony (Li); the model of procedure to achieve betterment in civilization

2. Yi-jing (I Ching, Classic of Changes) - yin-yang cosmological descriptions; comparable to environmentalism

3. Shu-jing (Classic of History) - data regarding Xia, Shang, and Zhou Dynasties; value of cultural tradition

4. Chun Qiu (Classic of Spring and Autumn) - a philosophical commentary on political events; applications of Li theory

5. Shi-jing (Classic of Poetry) - Zhou Dynasty poetry with cultural significance; egalitarian spirituality of all mankind

Cosmology

Confucianist social theory offers immediate benefits to all practitioners, regardless of spiritual beliefs, but the philosophy might be best grounded in religion as Confucius himself taught it should be. Li ultimately results in betterment to participants, so although it might mention Tian (heaven), all of the benefit comes from its actual execution and not from a divine response to li. The Yi-jing (I Ching) elaborates on spiritual concepts of a force called qi; Confucianism sees more physical explanations for benefits from qi than a related religion, Taoism.

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Hinduism

Om

For certain is death for the born, and certain is birth for the dead, therefore over the inevitable, thou shouldst not grieve.

- Bhagavad Gita, Chapter 2 Verse 27

Introduction

Hinduism is the term used to describe a vast collection of loosely-related faith practices native to the Indian subcontinent. The practices described below are popular but not definitive or even inclusive of most Hindus.

Recurrent Concepts throughout Hinduism

There is something sacred or blessed about the very geography of the Indian subcontinent.

There might ultimately be one Almighty God. He has three most powerful forms: that of Brahman, the Creator of All; Shiva, Destroyer of All; and Vishnu, Preserver of All. This Almighty God also takes other forms, and popularly the forms are numbered as 330 million, and many forms act as individual deities. Some Hindus say that there are many gods and yet only an Almighty God; or some just say there are many gods and say nothing of an Almighty God. This is a difficult concept for non-Hindus but sensible to Hindus.
After death one’s soul (spiritual essence) leaves one’s body and migrates into a new body. This is called samsara (reincarnation).

The design of the universe contains an inherent and personal dharma (duty) for each creature; it is beneficial to recognize and accept this duty. Dharma changes in every incarnation of a soul.
The design of the universe contains an inherent system of applying merit based on a creature’s adherence to its dharma; this system is called karma. Karma stays the same as a soul reincarnates.

There is a form of enlightenment which by means of which one can escape samsara and join Vishnu. This enlightenment involves recognizing maya (illusion) and thereby achieving moksha (enlightenment).

Vishnu loves humanity and wants humanity to seek Him. He incarnates Himself on earth periodically when righteousness declines and unrighteousness increases; while on earth he then augments the former and combats the latter.

Three of Vishnu’s latest forms have been Rama (born 7400 BCE), a dutiful warrior whose story is contained in the epic Ramayana; Krishna (born 3200 BCE), an intensely physically and mentally attractive cowherd and prince whose story is told in the epic Mahabharata; and Buddha (born 560 BCE), founder of Buddhism.
There is an associated concept of caste relating to Dharma; this concept may or may not have been radically altered by British occupation. Strictly speaking, only Hindus have caste, but in social practice, many classes of society from all religions exhibit intercaste formality.

India’s Peaceful Residents

Hindu tradition has been the formative background for the nurturing of other religions, notably Zoroastrianism (through Parsis), Buddhism, Sikhism, and Jainism. Historically, these faith systems and Hinduism itself have produced some of the highest philosophical treatises on the topic of peaceful living.

None of these other religions have any basis in Hinduism; they were founded separately from Hindu religious influence.

Conclusion

It is not the case that one form or teaching of Vishnu is most important; it is one’s dharma which directs one to glorify Almighty God in the appropriate way. However, Rama and Krishna are wildly popular.

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Islam

Ottoman Empire Mark

أشهد أن لا إله إلاَّ لله ، وأشهد أن محمد رسول ال

“There is no god but Allah (Almighty God) and Muhammad is His prophet.”

- Shahada (Creed of Islam)

Introduction

Islam is a religion which traces its founding to an agreement which Allah (Almighty God) had with Ibrahim, (Abraham), in 2000 BCE. Since then, Allah established a final covenant through a final prophet Muhammad, born 570 CE. This covenant involves respect for Allah’s instructions contained verbatim in the Qur’an as given to Muhammad; in return Allah promises infinite reward in Jannah (a paradise garden) after death. Most Muslims believe that Allah will punish in a finite way those who did not accept the covenant in this life, after which comes the possibility of entering Jannah.

Practices

Muslims have in common five practices, known as the Five Pillars of Islam. These are the following:

1. recitation of the Shahadah, as written above

2. salat, or prayer five times daily

3. zakat, or the giving of alms toward charitable world-betterment

4. sawn, or fasting during the holy month of Ramadan

5. Hajj, or the pilgrimage to Mecca in Saudi Arabia

The consensus is that each of these practices is beneficial to oneself and to one’s community, and therefore pleasing to Allah. Also note that each one of these practices is intimately connected with education, as the Shahadah and salat must be backed with understanding; the zakat must be used in a maximally economical way; the Ramadan is a time for study; and the Hajj is an intellectual as well as spiritual learning adventure.

Importance of Messenger and Location

All Muslims believe that Muhammad presented the Qur’an to the world in a perfect way; the majority of people would not otherwise argue that Muhammad was divine. Most people believe that Allah chose Muhammad to bear the Qu’ran, and other than that, he was simply a righteous man like other prophets.

Mecca is a city of historical significance to Muslims and it is prominent as a place from which Allah chose to deliver his message to mankind. In Mecca there is al-Masjid al-Haram (The Sacred Mosque) which contains the Kaaba. Ibrahim and his firstborn son, Ismail, built the Kaaba with explicit instructions from Allah. It is the holiest site in Islam, and Muslims face the Kaaba when praying.

Spirituality

Islam is legalistic, as is its historical tradition from People of the Book (Jews and Christians). The major sects tend to integrate beliefs formally into the laws of society, and sometimes seem to view Allah as a director of worldly affairs through human devotees rather than as a personally intervening entity.

There are other sects of Islam, notably the Sufis, who more often experience Allah in a direct way through spiritual communion.

Authority

Islam has no central authority. While Christianity and Judaism – the previous Abrahamic traditions - also claim to have unadulterated Word of God, Islamic belief is much stricter about propagation of the Word in that the Qu’ran is untranslatable from the original Arabic. All attempts to publish the Qu’ran in other languages are flawed, and therefore its interpretation solely as an Arabic text is more evident and requires less commentary.

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Judaism

Magen David

What is hateful to you do not do to your neighbor. That is the whole Torah - the rest is commentary.

- Talmud, Tractate Shabbat 31A

Introduction

The word “Jewish” denotes a culture, a religion, and also a set of ethnicities which cross numerous races, times, and geographical areas; therefore, being a Jew can mean adhering to certain customs for either a social or spiritual reasons, or it can mean only that a person is of a certain parentage.

The traditional Jewish religion, Judaism, likewise is cross-cultural in that those who have no ethnic ties to the religion may yet respectfully practice it. The faith system of Judaism states that various prominent Jews in history entered contractual relationships with Almighty God on behalf of the Jewish people; the agreements tend toward God asking the Jews to do something natural and wholesome. In return God bestows an abundance of sublime favor onto the Jewish people.

Jewish Books and Authority

The authority of Judaism is vested in writings and traditions and not in any governing body. The Hebrew Bible consists of these three books: the Torah, or the Five Books of Moses; the Nevi'im, or the Prophets; and the Ketuvim, or the Writings. The Torah has prime influence over these, but this collection of texts has been preserved continuously for many thousands of years.

Judaism is a religion with a closed canon but retains exceptional respect for other books. The Talmud is a set of commentaries completed around 400 CE by rabbis (Jewish teachers) who have interpreted the Torah. Scholars of Jewish mysticism recorded their observations into the Kabbalah; the Zohar (Book of Splendor) is a contained text which expounds ten created Sephiroth (enumerations) by means of which God created the universe. The Haggadah is a detailed retelling of the Exodus from Egypt and is widely embedded into Hebrew tradition.

Jewish History

Judaism was founded around 2000 BCE in the region which is now termed the Middle East through a man named Abraham, who was a member of a nomadic tribe called the Hebrews, who later were called the Israelites.

There is a dynasty of God-fearing men chronicled in the Torah. The history goes as such: A man named Noah built a boat upon command by God. God flooded the earth, sparing only Noah and his family. One of Noah's sons, Shem, was the ancestor of Abraham. God spoke to Abraham, saying “I will make you a great nation.” Abraham’s successor Jacob founded the Jewish nation of Israel.

Abraham’s descendents figure prominently in Jewish history, but also in fulfillment of that Jewish prophesy both Jesus of Nazareth, founder of Christianity, and Muhammad, who established Islam, claim lineage back to Abraham. Discussion of the significance of this prophesy is often emotionally reactive to Jews, Christians, and Muslims.

Jewish Spirituality

Jewish people share a history as a nation in exile and attach great value to their State of Israel, restored in 1947. While many Jews are secular, practically all take pride from at least some aspects of their culture’s history and efficiency.

Jews put emphasis successful living. Although many Jews believe in an afterlife, most authorities say that preparing for it is either futile or simply best done by living a meaningful human existence.

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Natural Law

Pink Triangle

What is wholesome and healthy for the human body is wholesome and healthy because either God willed it to be so or nature designed it to be so.
- Traditional

Introduction

Natural Law is the concept that life forms have a certain function and purpose. When beings live according to their scientifically evident purpose then nature generates benefit; when life is artificially forced into non-functional, illogical roles then nature generates problems.

Natural Law asserts that humankind has inherent in its very design, as evidenced by its very existence, certain inalienable and God-given rights. These rights can be readily determined by assessment of actions for harm and benefit; if a certain action is beneficial to a person, and if that action causes no harm to others, then execution of that action should be an inherent right associated with human existence.

Natural Law is also the name given to the social and religious movements which spontaneously arise in civilizations of all eras when a minority group faces oppression from a society which enacts decisions against Natural Law.  Currently, homosexual persons who petition for equal rights under governmental law have a claim that Natural Law is on their side against civil prohibition of gay marriage.

Holocaust

During the 1940s, Germany’s fascist Nazi political regime rounded up millions of people who were members of groups which, by Natural Law, had a right to liberty. Persons categorized as homosexual comprised one of these groups; all gays were labeled with a pink triangle sewn onto their prison clothes as the first part of a planned route of torture.

Tens of thousands of gays were murdered this way. Because no such persecution of homosexuals had ever existed on such a horrendous scale, gays have reclaimed the pink triangle as a symbol of pride and willingness to fight back whenever oppression appears again. It is interesting to note that the Cross of Christianity and the Pink Triangle are both former symbols of execution.

According to the U.S. Biblical scholar, Morton Smith, of Columbia University, a fragment of manuscript he found at the Mar Saba monastery near Jerusalem in 1958, showed that the full text of St. Mark chapter 10 (between verses 34 and 35 in the standard version of the Bible) contains a passage which includes the following text. –There's a suppressed part of the Gospel of Mark quoted in a letter from Clement, Bishop of Alexandria, to Theodore, the priest of an early Christian community, c.95 AD, that reads:
"And the youth, looking upon him (Jesus), loved him and beseeched that he might remain with him. And going out of the tomb, they went into the house of the youth, for he was rich. And after six days, Jesus instructed him and, at evening, the youth came to him wearing a linen cloth over his naked body. And he remained with him that night, for Jesus taught him the mystery of the Kingdom of God".

Tatchell says there is scant information about Jesus's sexuality: "We don't know for sure whether Jesus was straight, gay, bisexual or celibate. There is certainly no evidence for the Church's presumption that he was heterosexual. Nothing in the Bible points to him having desires or relationships with women. The possibility of a gay Christ cannot be ruled out.

"Since there is no proof of the heterosexuality of Jesus, the theological basis of Church homophobia is all the more shaky and indefensible.

"Jesus was born a man and therefore presumably had male sexual feelings. But there are no references in the gospels to his sexuality. Large chunks of Jesus's life are missing from the Biblical accounts. This has fueled speculation that the early Church sanitized the gospels, removing references to Christ's sexuality that were not in accord with the heterosexual morality that it wanted to promote".

Courtesy of http://www.globaltown.com

Also see: Homoeroticism in the Biblical World Martti Nissinen, published by the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America book house.

Also see: Brooten, Bernadette J. Love Between Women: Early Christian Responses to Female Homoeroticism. The Chicago Series on Sexuality, History, and Society

Also: Verses Missing from Gospel of Mark ?
http://www.religioustolerance.org/chr_miss.htm

Ultimate Goal

Persons citing Natural Law as a cause for social change typically do so with an abundance of scientific backing but an overabundance of societal backlash. Previous documented victories which overcame societal and religious customs in many places at many times include repeal of discrimination based on gender, creed, class, caste, age, race, skin color, and sexual orientation. Practitioners believe prejudice is a social ill which resurfaces, causing strife in all ages. It must be recognized to be understood and fairly judged to be extinguished, leaving merit and the inherent value of a soul as the measure of human worth.  

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Neopaganism

Sun Cross

As it harms none, do as thou wilt.

- Traditional, from Crowley and Wiccan Rede

Introduction

Neopaganism is a revivalist movement powered by an amalgamation of primal traditions from various geographical areas and eras. An uncodified faith system with no central authority, it does not have many adherents or a set of canonical faith texts; and it is exemplified by almost personal faith practices and extreme variation in belief, purpose, and custom. One concept that has gained wide acceptance in Neopaganist thought is that each person should do what they decide is ‘right,’ with the term being defined as what benefits themselves and causes harm to no other.

Diversity

“Neopagan” refers to a reclamation of the formerly pejorative term “pagan,” used by Abrahamic religious tradition to refer to primal traditional faith practices everywhere in the world. While the original primal religions were localized and even sometimes exclusive to all but their adherents, the Neopagan movement has adopted a policy of universal acceptance and wide assimilation of the practices of many cultures. Common characteristics of all branches of Neopaganism include reverence for surroundings – usually natural, but sometimes urban – and the ability to personally direct material world change through the control of spiritual forces.

One of the most popular and best-established branches of Neopaganism is Wicca, which is a system incorporating magic and which may venerate a Goddess, Horned God, or other deities. Wicca itself is sectarian, almost to the point where most Neopagans fit someone’s definition of “Wicca.”

Other popular branches of Neopaganism include types of animism; specifically Shamanism, which is typically a leadership-based and intuitive system of spiritual interaction; and Druidism, which is typically a communally-led and ritualistic system of spiritual interaction. Neopaganism has enacted the rise of scientifically-integrated physical, mental, and spiritual healing practice systems involving techniques such as ayurveda, yoga, acupuncture, massage, herbalism, alchemy, and psychonautical travel.

Newness and Lack of Educational Resources

Unfortunately, the demand for spiritual fulfillment in the Neopagan faith system is currently in crisis as many who are interested in Neopaganism are at a loss to find good teachers, be those teachers practicing Neopagans or simply good books due to the lack of history and ritualistic tradition. Undoubtedly Neopaganism will grow in value and importance over time.

Necessity of Community

Neopaganism is currently difficult to explain in text form due to its rich varieties of practices. Interested parties are encouraged to join a Neopagan community to get guidance from a practicing and experienced Neopagan or even start a new Neopagan community, rather than attempt solitary research in books.

The Internet can be key resources for finding other Neopagans. Neopagans tend to congregate in cities in spite of the preference to perform rituals in a natural setting. To remedy to this problem is a community issue much like successful churches of older faiths incorporate social networks to serve their members’ needs.

Organizations
The New Age movement is currently dispersed in the sense that no one organization has made enough of a significant contribution to achieve wide renown. Almost all successful New Age practitioners are talented individuals associated with either small schools or churches, private research firms, or simply their own family or community.

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Humanism

Courtesy of www.progressiveliving.org

Q. Is Humanism the same thing as atheism?

A. No. Humanists want to have the best possible foundation for their beliefs and values, and so they demand good evidence for all of their convictions, religious or otherwise. Religious humanists believe in the existence of God but don't accept claims of Biblical inerrancy. Secular Humanists generally don't think the evidence for the existence of a God is very good, so many are atheists or agnostics (people who haven't committed to a definite belief).
But just as a Christian isn't just someone who believes in God, a Humanist isn't just someone who rejects inerrancy, or who doesn't believe in God (or who thinks the jury is still out). Humanism has a many-centuries-old tradition of values that pre-dates Christianity by some five hundred years. (Indeed, most of what people have come to think of as "family values" is actually Humanist in origin. For most of its existence Christianity rejected concern for the life lived in this world, instead emphasizing an eternity to be spent in hell, or, in the case of a tiny few, with God.) If you sincerely believe that the best available evidence provides a convincing case for the existence of God, and you endorse Humanistic values, you are a theistic (or religious) Humanist. For a presentation of this position, see "How to Think About God," by Mortimer Adler.
Note that, of itself, atheism has nothing to say about morality or life purpose. It is simply the doctrine that there is no God. In a sense, Humanism begins where atheism ends, because, unlike atheism, Humanism is primarily concerned with ethics, not with the debate concerning the existence of God. (For a more in-depth discussion of that debate, including an explanation of why it is a far less important issue than many people assume, follow this link.)

Q. Do Humanists believe in "the survival of the fittest" as a code of conduct?

A. No. Far from it. The phrase "survival of the fittest" is derived from the theory of evolution originally proposed by Charles Darwin. Humanists do believe that human beings, like every other living thing, evolved from simpler organisms; but the evolutionary process doesn't of itself provide an ethical standard. Humanists share with most of the religions of the world a belief in the Golden Rule: "Do unto others as you would have them do unto you." Notice that this rule doesn't have anything to do with the existence or non-existence of supernatural beings. (A more complete statement of Humanist morality can be found in the work of the philosopher Immanuel Kant; and a Humanist theory of the purpose of life can be found in Aristotle's book Nicomachean Ethics.)

Q. Who are some famous Humanists?
A. Among the best-known secular humanists are Confucius, Mark Twain, Albert Einstein, and many Nobel-prize winners. Perhaps the most eminent contemporary religious humanist (though he might dispute this label) is Huston Smith. Liberal Christian Protestant theologians such as Paul Tillich are also in the camp of the religious humanists. Finally, some existentialists, such as Jean-Paul Sartre, have also been humanists.

Q. That's a very diverse list. What do you have to believe in order to be a Humanist?

A. Humanism doesn't have a "bible" which codifies, once and for all, all of the beliefs that Humanists must have in order to be Humanists. However, the writings of many eminent figures over thousands of years comprise a kind of Humanist canon, which spells out a complex tapestry of evolving values. Important early figures in Humanism were Socrates, Aristotle and Confucius, all of whose work remains seminal today. Among the most important modern Humanist philosophers have been Brand Blanshard, a professor of philosophy at Yale university, and Thomas Hurka, a professor of philosophy at the University of Calgary in Canada, whose work provides an exciting new foundation for ethics and values. In general, Humanists place a great deal of emphasis on living a full life, with a rich variety of experiences and accomplishments, and in contributing to the quality of life of others as well. If you try to live each day of your life in such a way as to try to make the world a little bit better place, you are living humanistically. If it seems strange that Humanists don't all believe the same thing, perhaps an analogy with science might help. Physicists are currently debating some eight or nine different theories concerning quantum mechanics. There is strenuous disagreement about which theory is correct. Yet all of the theorists still consider themselves physicists, because their deepest commitment is to science itself rather than to any particular theory. Similarly, the most fundamental ideological commitment of Humanists is to rationalism, regardless of whether they find more truth in Aristotle, Confucius, Blanshard, Hurka, or some other philosopher.

Q. How many Humanists are there? Where are they?

A. Because the majority of Humanists are reared in cultures that are religious (in the authoritarian, non-Humanistic sense), and because organized religions have a long and disgraceful tradition of persecuting Humanists (often perceiving in Humanism a threat to their own prestige, power, and wealth), many don't even know that they are Humanists, and tend to keep their opinions to themselves. This makes it difficult to know precisely how many Humanists there are. As a very rough measure, approximately ten percent of the populace in any nation inclines toward Humanistic convictions, most having reached such convictions on their own. Perhaps another twenty percent are, in effect, religious Humanists, who believe in God, but are skeptical of the dogmas of their religion, while nevertheless broadly accepting of its values.

Q. What do Humanists think of the religions of the world?

A. That varies from Humanist to Humanist. Some Humanists, having been persecuted for their convictions, or seeing in religion a propensity to superstition, have an active dislike of all forms of religiosity. Some are quite religious, though in a very questioning, seeking way. Others are somewhere in between, seeing religion as mixed blessing, offering some valuable guidance and insight, but at the same time cultivating a subservient attitude of submission to authority, an unquestioning acceptance of dogmas, and a refusal to abandon medieval, spirit-haunted views of the world long since disproven, at least in anything resembling their original form. (I'm personally inclined to the latter viewpoint.) If this viewpoint is correct, then religious reforms are badly needed. The sciences didn't advance beyond a very rudimentary stage of development until they developed a very tough-minded attitude toward the facts and worked out a methodology to systematically check those facts. Values seem to me to be in precisely the same position today. Philosophers have painstakingly worked out ways of validating viewpoints, including ways of evaluating values, but until these are widely known and accepted by both religious institutions and ordinary people, our values will remain confused and poorly grounded. Because cultivation of the sciences led to incredible improvements in our standard of living, and indirectly generated vast fortunes, it became very difficult to ignore or suppress them. Philosophy, on the other hand, has generated few, if any, fortunes, and has therefore had few benefactors in the business sector. The consequence has been that we have become spiritual barbarians in possession of tremendously powerful weapons and tools.

Q. But aren't the truths of philosophy too difficult for the average person to grasp? Isn't the fear of an all-powerful, all-knowing God necessary to keep people "toeing the line" morally? And don't atheists and Humanists have a license to act immorally?

A. Surprisingly, perhaps, although arguments of this kind have often been made, history has shown them to be false. For example, the Japanese people developed an ethic known as Bushido that had nothing of any importance to do with supernatural beings, but nevertheless served as a code of conduct which, although a mixed blessing, was at the very least no worse in its consequences than organized religion. Similarly, the Chinese philosophy of Confucianism served as a non-theological code of ethics for the Chinese for millennia, on the whole with very beneficial effects. Of course, like conventionally religious individuals, Humanists too have their occasional moral lapses, but these have less to do with Humanist doctrine than with a fallible human nature. And, of course, not all Chinese or Japanese had an appreciation of all of the subtleties of Bushido or Confucianism, just as many conventionally religious individuals have only a very basic understanding of their religious doctrines. Nevertheless, both of these non-religious doctrines served large numbers of people well for long periods of time. If morality was closely tied to the existence of God, there would be much to fear for morality, for the existence of God has never been proven. However, the Humanist view is that the legitimacy of morality has little to do with either the existence or non-existence of a supernatural being, and everything to do with a simple principle: do unto others as you would have them do unto you, because that's the right thing to do.

Q. How can Humanists think life is meaningful if there's no God?

A. Again, Humanism takes no firm stand on the existence or non-existence of God, insisting only that whatever one's beliefs may be that they be well-grounded and rational. However, many Humanists would point out that life is meaningful because of good relationships, meaningful work, and so on; and these things are meaningful whether or not there is some cosmic plan for mankind. Presumably, God would commend these things because they are meaningful; and they could not be made meaningful if they were otherwise meaningless merely because God commended them.

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New Age

Lemniscate or Infinity

Intelligence may control the mechanism of civilization, wisdom may direct it, but spiritual idealism is the energy which really uplifts and advances human culture from one level of attainment to another.

- Urantia Book, 81:6 (page 909)

Introduction

New Age refers to a movement through which spirituality comes under investigation by science with positive findings. Science can be defined as the compilation of subjective real-world events into objective numerical data for the purpose of interpreting past events and with the hope of predicting future events. Traditional sciences, which stem from physics, measure things in the material realm. The New Age movement is intimately associated with a branch of science called “metaphysics,” which measures things in the spiritual realm.

Legacy of Research

New Age does not yet have a canon and instead has preserved its tradition over the centuries with continual rewriting of concepts to better benefit different time periods. The texts that would potentially be in the canon, such as the Confucian Yi-jing (called I Ching or Classic of Changes), the ancient Egyptian mathematical theory from the Book of the Dead, Jewish Kabbalah’s Zohar, Hindu Vedanta practices from the Upanishads, and other applications of scientific method to spirituality are currently studied in concentrated geographical areas. There is a major concern in that much of the knowledge of primal traditions – sometimes called “pagan” – is not currently accessible through books or the Internet.

Organizations

The New Age movement is currently dispersed in the sense that no one organization has made enough of a significant contribution to achieve wide renown. Almost all successful New Age practitioners are talented individuals associated with either small schools or churches, private research firms, or simply their own family or community.

Spirituality

A common teaching within New Age faith is that all beings have a spiritual essence. This essence may either be personal to an individual – as in notions of Ancient Egyptian ba, Hindu atman, or the soul of Abrahamic traditions - or it may be an actual fragment of the Creator’s infinite spiritual essence – as in the notion of Buddha-nature.

There is extreme variation of teaching otherwise, but the care of spiritual needs often is as much of a priority as intellectual or bodily interests.

Extraterrestrial Life

Some practitioners within the New Age movement believe in the material form of the Creator’s most devoted celestial servants; this is in contrast to most other faith traditions which hold that beings such as angels or devas are primarily spiritual entities.

Successful Practice

Those who benefit from New Age are typically those who best balance intuition with science. Science demands that all practices follow a method; generally, if a given practice can be taught, learned, or transferred from one person to another, then it is methodical and therefore metaphysical. If a given practice is unique to an individual then it probably is not metaphysical, and might better be classified as spiritual in some other sense.

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Primal Faith

Sunspot, Universal Life

Free choice and opportunity, not race, creed, gender, orientation, caste, class, or color make people different.

- Universal Life Church Monastery Mission

Introduction

Some religions are primal faith traditions, meaning that they existed at the beginning of recorded history. Few of these exist as major world religions today; however as examples, certain beliefs in Hinduism, Chinese folk religion, Zoroastrianism, and Judaism probably qualify to be called “primal.”

Most primal traditions were localized and did not have missionary conversion doctrines. Over time, a religious conversion meme dominated world politics and certain religions became prominent as other religions went into decline or total non-practice. Of the three world religions with a tradition of converting non-believers to their belief systems – Buddhism, Christianity, and Islam – the latter two have been particularly domineering worldwide in the forcefulness of their propagation. Christians usually referred to primal faith traditions as “pagan,” while Muslims usually referred to them as what is translated to mean “idolators.” Both of these terms are derogatory within those religions.

There typically is no connection between any one primal faith tradition and another. Even primal traditions in close geographical proximity or in different groups within a cultural or ethic category can vary to the point of complete differentiation. The fact that primal faith traditions are grouped together in this book is due to an ability to give fair treatment to any of them.
With apologies, a goal of this book is to be concise and meaningful to the greatest number of readers. An overview of each is not possible within that goal. Interested parties should do their own research and be aware that many primal faith traditions are preserving their doctrines by means of Internet documentation and awareness campaigns.

Primal Faith Traditions by Geography

Africa is a continent which contains areas subjected to wide-scale human rights abuses of the worst kinds for at least centuries. Through no fault of their own, indigenous peoples there have had their faiths shaken in literally ungodly ways. Those that remain are soulful, steadfast, inspirational, and in need of increased global awareness without further shocking intervention.

Most European native traditions are chronicled in history as being converts. Some traditions are well-documented otherwise; some exist even today.

Northern Siberia’s native traditions remained intact longer than elsewhere in Russian Federation due to that land being less economically desirable than other places in modern times. Heavily populated places became homogeneous more readily.

When the “New World” was “discovered” by Westerners in the late fifteenth century CE, it was actually already inhabited in most viable regions. Very few indigenous peoples north of Mexico live without thorough integration into non-indigenous society. Often the decimation of native religion in the Americas is paired with decimation of native renewable resources.

When Australia was “discovered” in the early seventeenth century CE it was actually already inhabited in most viable regions by the Aborigines and the Torres Strait Islanders. The debate about the impact of this “discovery” is known in Australia as the “History Wars.”

Pacific Island tribal faiths are some of the best preserved still in practice.

China has been recovering from an identity crisis stemming from the British Opium Wars in the early nineteenth century; since then its government has taken varying stands on the status of native religion.
India has legal protections in place since the mid-twentieth century for what are called “Scheduled Tribes,” “Scheduled Castes,” and “Other Backward Classes.”
Middle Eastern native traditions were documented in various ways. A great tragedy of the twenty-first century was the public loss of Mesopotamian religious artifacts in the American / Iraqi War.

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Shinto

Torii

The heart of the person before you is a mirror. See there your own form.

- Traditional Shinto maxim

Introduction

Shinto is the religion culturally and geographically tied to Japan. Its practice of acknowledging kami (spirits) dates to at least 100 BCE, which coincides with Japan’s founding as a state.

Shinto practices are animistic, meaning they recognize that kami reside in living and non-living things, and they are shamanistic, meaning that Shinto adherents are able to utilize the kami nature of things in controllable and useful ways. Typically, Shinto is used to purify people, places, and things of troublesome spiritual pollution.

Shinto ceremonies themselves are often exceedingly formal by the standards of many other religions; however, this formality is an entirely pleasurable experience within the context of Japanese culture.

Customs and Beliefs

Kami are typically petitioned for worldly favors such as reward for good performance in school or work, protection on trips, or for success toward a building’s purpose at its dedication. Before Kami are consulted the associated people, objects, and places are ritualistically made clean through a process called O Harae. O Harae is performed with the help of a Shinto priest, who directs various rituals involving washing with water, the sprinkling of salt, or the shaking of onusa, wooden wands with paper streamers attached.

Kami are separated from the human world symbolically by a torii (gate), which traditionally is made from two horizontal supports born by two vertical supports, all painted red. Torii can be large works of architecture or small enough to sit on a desktop; all sizes are religiously significant. Torii mark the entrance to Shinto shrines, but the use of natural environment to complement the human element of proper protocol characterizes the shrine experience as a whole.
Shinto puts emphasis on successful living, and has little to say of an afterlife. Yomi, the land of the dead, is taught as the likely destination of all deceased. It is described as a gloomy, boring, resting place for spirits.

Cosmology

Shinto acknowledges a pantheon of specific divine personalities in addition to other, less differentiated kami. Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, has a tie to the lineage of the Imperial Household of Japan as well as a connection to the Imperial Regalia of Japan. These Three Sacred Treasures - a sword, a jewel, and a mirror – have recorded history dating them as over one-thousand years old and are material objects representative of Japan’s status as a spiritual protectorate under kami.

Syncretism

Japanese tend to view religion in a pragmatic way, and typically see no conflict in exploiting only the best parts of various religions. An example of this is the custom of overworked students to pray at Shinto shrines before exams. These same Japanese might later look to Christian churches to perform marriages, because they like the idea of God blessing a marriage. On another occasion a Buddhist temple would be sought to perform a funeral, because Buddhists are thought to have the most pleasant things to say about death and rebirth. Whatever other religious traditions are celebrated, the kami are always there to help when asked.

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Sikhism

Khanda

There is only one breath. All are made of the same clay. The light within all is the same.

- Guru Granth Sahib, page 96

Introduction

Sikhism was a religion founded in the northwestern Indian subcontinent through a revelation from Almighty God to Nanak (born 1469 CE), who gained the title Guru (teacher). Guru Nanek appointed a successor, as did each in a line of successors. By the early 1700s it was known that there would not be another human Guru, but rather the book Guru Granth Sahib would act as perpetual Guru thenceforth.

Sikhism has an unusual undercurrent of thought in assuming that one’s religion might be an unchosen matter of birth as it relates to geography or era, and therefore one is only partially responsible for participating in it. By this circumvention of elitism the Sikhs traditionally establish a magnanimous sense of brotherhood between themselves and other faith traditions.

Sikhs accept concepts of karma and reincarnation but teach that Almighty God ultimately grants salvation. Descriptions of places such as “heaven” or “hell” in this scheme have little meaning.

Brotherhood

Sikhism stands out as a social movement as well as a religion. Sikhs strive to treat all people equally, regardless of religion, gender, social status, or any other factor commonly used to enforce discrimination.

While Sikhs personally value their religious beliefs over all others, they recognize that their personal beliefs may not be equally valuable to others. Sikhs claim that there are multiple ways to please Almighty God, and that they themselves are but one group of God’s children. Almighty God offers salvation on some other basis than perfunctory choice of religion.

Five K’s

Sikhs themselves stand out instantly in public by five outward signs, these being

1. kesh (uncut hair), often wrapped in a turban

2. kanga (comb), to keep hair neat

3. kara (steel bracelet), worn on dominant arm

4. kirpan (sword), usually small, a reminder of freedom

5. kaccha (breeches), which actually are often not publicly displayed

Each of these articles is related to Sikh values as taught by the Gurus. Note that during youth, Sikhs typically are casual about displaying these signs. After an initiation with Amrit (holy water) the Sikh is considered Khalsa. Anyone undergoing this ceremony chooses Sikhism over other faith systems.

Authority

Sikhs have neither priestly class nor central religious authority. There is an organization called the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee (SGPC) who are responsible for civil matters relating to the upkeep of Sikhism as a religion; it also is a political entity for the Sikhs as a nation. Leaders in the SGPC are democratically elected.

The Harmandir Sahib (Golden Temple) in Amritsar, Punjab, is the most culturally and historically significant Sikh religious center; however, all places which contain the Guru Granth Sahib are equally worthy of being a place of worship.

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Taoism

Taijitu, or Yin-Yang

The Tao [way] that can be taught is not the eternal Tao.

- Lao-zi. ca600-530 BCE

Introduction

Taoism, also known as Daosim, emphasizes harmony between humans and the natural world. It is a religion native to China and dating from 550 BCE – 400 BCE. Lao-zi, whose name means "Old Boy," is the purported founder of Taoism. His book, Dao de jing (Classic of Tao), is simultaneously a powerful and ambiguous work containing phrasing with multiple meanings in its expounding of issues such as ethics, cosmology, epistemology, politics, and spiritual and material fulfillment.

The Chinese word “tao” means “way,” and Taoism is a system which promises to teach the best way to do all things. To practitioners, the fact that its date of founding and its founder are lightly recorded in history is trivial.

Taoism specifies no belief in an Almighty God but does assume sentient spiritual beings.  It emphasizes right actions but does not proscribe many beliefs.

The Way

Following the Tao means making choices that are most wholesome, most natural, and most beneficial. The Tao is without purpose; its followers react to situations without having specific expectations or desires to mold them. An analogy from the Dao de jing is that one should seek to resemble an uncarved stone. Where Western tradition argues about varying degrees of free will versus destiny, Taoism teaches that neither are significant and that humankind should live in a constant state of full and un-tapped potential.

Qi, The Force

Tao spiritual tradition describes an all-pervasive force called qi (Chi), which means energy or breath. Qi itself has two states, one corresponding to inhalation (yin) and one to exhalation (yang). By this metaphor the connectedness of other opposites can explained; the proper balance of anything is the Tao as there is a correct ratio of all coexisting opposites which are necessary for the sustenance of life. Examples of other opposites include male and female; activity and rest; hot and cold.

There might be ways to harness qi and use it to enact material-world changes; the holistic health philosophy of Tai Chi refers to this power in its very name, as does the fullness of its martial tradition Tai Chi Chuan. Feng Shui is a system of material-world organization which permits qi to flow and eddy throughout a particular location without becoming stagnant and deleterious. Acupuncture and other Chinese medical traditions regulate the ebb, flow, and balance of qi. All of these practices stem from traditions dating back thousands of years, but none of these have been universally popular or systematically practiced throughout that entire time span.

Spirituality

Taoism most readily differentiates from Confucianism, its geographic and cultural neighbour, by its emphasis on spirituality. Ancestor veneration in Taoism is believed to bring auspicious divine intervention more than simple self-betterment.

Authority

Taoism is not associated with any institution or authority; in fact, most practitioners have incorporated Taoist traditions into their lives without separating their cultural traditions from the Taoist faith traditions. Taoism is a part of Chinese folk tradition and has an open canon. It is being and will continue to be adapted to changes associated with each generation.

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Zoroastrianism

Faravahar (Angel)

Now the two primal Spirits, who reveal themselves in vision as Twins, are the Better and the Bad, in thought and word and action. Between these two the wise ones chose aright; the foolish not so.

-Avesta: Yasna 30 Ahunavaiti Gatha, verse 3

Introduction

Zoroastrianism is a religion founded in Persia (Iran) by Zoroaster (Zarathushtra) sometime between 1200-600 BCE. It is a religion which promised salvation in exchange for right belief based on the teachings of a closed religious canon; historically, however, many original scriptures were lost when Iskandar (Alexander the Great) attacked Darius III’s Persian Empire in 330 BCE.

It is a faith system which treats human devotion to asha (truth and righteousness) as the necessary precondition to bring about Ahura Mazda’s (Almighty God’s) destruction of evil.

Cosmology

Ahura Mazda created the universe from nothing and made humankind desirous of good but ignorant of asha, the truth. There is something profound and valuable about the act of seeking asha; furthermore, it is within the ability of humankind to do so.

There is a foil to Ahura Mazda’s infinite goodness, and it is a finite evil entity or lie named Angre Mainyu. These two entities also have a set of spiritual underlings, Mazda’s being the ahuras and Angre Mainyu’s being the daevas (compare Vedic Hindu tradition, which reverses these roles). Mithra is the leader of the ahuras, and is like a leader of an angelic order.

Salvation

The Avesta is the primary collection of sacred texts of Zoroastrianism and it charges readers to seek asha. It teaches that, upon simple reflection, one should realize that Ahura Mazda is good and that humankind is integral and potent in the overcoming of Angre Mainyu. The start of this battle between moral spirits is in finding wisdom; upon prayerful request, Mazda will aid His devotees to that end.

Mazda typically executes His spiritual designs for humans through Fravashi, or guardian angels. This is comparable to His executing His material world plans through humans themselves. Ultimately, human efforts will banish evil and unrighteousness from the material world.

Afterlife

There is a judgment for humans to determine residence in one of two spiritual planes in the afterlife. After death, a person crosses the Bridge of the Separator and enters either the Abode of Songs and exists in asha; otherwise a person enters the House of Lies and exists without asha.

Culture

During the Islamic conquest of Persia around 650 CE many Zoroastrians were displaced to India, where Zoroastrianism lives today through the Parsis and Iranis in India as well as the communities who stayed in Iran. Despite geographical separation for an extended period of time, most members of Zoroastrian faith remained true to its precepts and today the religion is not formally sectarian.

Zoroastrian culture teaches equality of all humans regardless of born traits or religion. Environmental concerns are historically also a cultural devotion.